زندگی و زمانۀ ذوالفقار شروانی

Introduction

Genghis Khan of the Mongols began the conquest of Iran and other western territories of the Mongol settlements in 1219 CE (616 AH). However, the complete conquest of Iran was not achieved during Genghis Khan’s lifetime. It was his grandson, Hulagu Khan, who in 1253 CE (651 AH) completed the territorial acquisitions of his grandfather. The Ilkhanid period, corresponding to the 13^th and early 14^th centuries CE (6^th and early 7^th centuries AH) in Iran, contrary to common misconception, was not entirely a period of devastation. Despite considerable turmoil and hardship, the Mongol invasions destroyed only a few major cities in Transoxiana (Farārood) and Khorasan. Many ancient Iranian cities such as Shiraz, Isfahan, Yazd, Kerman, Shushtar, Herat, and others were spared from total destruction.
The Mongols devastated cities like Bukhara, Samarkand, and Gurganj in Transoxiana, as well as Marv Shah-Jahan and Nishapur in Khorasan. However, the local dynasties and rulers of Iran who accepted Mongol suzerainty (Ilkhanid overlordship) managed to protect their domains from destruction. Iranian and non-Iranian dynasties that embraced Iranian culture and, in some cases, had governed since the 13^th century continued to rule during and after the Ilkhanid period into the Timurid era. They administered their territories and fostered Persian art and literature.
During this era, some of Iran’s most prominent poets emerged, including Saadi, Majd Hamgar, Fakhr al-Din Iraqi, and dozens of other distinguished poets and writers. Among the poets of this period was Sayyed Qawam al-Din Sharwani, known by his pen name Zulfaqar (died after 1296 CE / 695 AH). Due to the absence of a comprehensive published collection of his works, little research has been conducted on his poetry and biography. He or his family originated from Sharwan, and according to his own claims, his lineage traced back to the kings of that region. Names such as “Qawam al-Din Husayn ibn Sadr al-Din Ali” mentioned in biographical anthologies are not authentic; the poet should be referred to simply as Sayyed Qawam al-Din, or most likely Sayyed Qawam al-Din Ali.

Literary review

In 1934, a facsimile edition of the Divān of Zulfaqār Sharwani was published in London through the efforts of Edward Edwards. The most authoritative study about him appears in A History of Iranian Literature by Zabihallah Safa (Safa, 1990: 518-521). Among the published works on Zulfaqar Sharwani are the entry “Zulfaqar Sharwani” in Encyclopedia of the World of Islam (Moravveji, 2019), “Majd Hamgarʼs Name in the Divan of Zulfaqar Sharwani” (Safari Aqqale, 2008), and “Zulfaqār Sharwāni” in The Great Islamic Encyclopedia (Dadbeh, 2019). In addition, Sajjadi (1957), Rasfar and Esma’ili Tazekandi (2011), Idgah Torqabe’i (2018), Mirafzali (2024), Behnami and Bayani (2024) have all addressed aspects of his life and work. In 1984 Jafar Moqaddas produced a critical edition of the Divan of Zulfaqar Sharwani as his doctoral dissertation. Due to numerous inaccuracies concerning his dissertation the work is of limited scholarly reliability.

Methodology

The present study clarifies ambiguous aspects of his life through an examination of Zulfaqar Sharwani’s Divan and by consulting various sources. It especially investigates his patrons. The methodology employed is library research combined with textual analysis.

Discussion

In the Divan of Zulfaqar Sharwani, numerous details about his life can be found. In one of his important fakhriya (self-praise) qasidas, he states his lineage as follows: maternally, he is descended from the "grandchildren of the kings of Islam" (it is unclear which kings he refers to), and paternally, he traces his pure lineage to Imam Hasan and Imam Husayn (peace be upon them). He then enumerates his various skills, which include poetry in Persian and Arabic, prose and poetry composition in "six languages" (likely five of these being Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Azerbaijani, and Khuzistani), prose writing, wisdom, astronomy, calligraphy, geomancy (raml), medicine, preaching, music, alchemy, history, dream interpretation, logic, lexicography, grammar, morphology, playing musical instruments, swimming, chess, warfare, horsemanship, mysticism, and more.
In his poetry, he frequently references earlier poets such as Ferdowsi, Unsuri, Azraqi, Anvari, and Khaghani, but aside from a few instances, he seldom mentions his birthplace and origin, Sharwan.  Numerous verses in his Divan reveal a strong respect for Imam Ali (peace be upon him) and intense enmity toward the enemies of the Imam. The presence of such verses increases the likelihood that he was a Shia.
In Zulfaqar Sharwani’s Divan, there is no evidence of eulogizing the Khwarazmshahs. Instead, he mainly praises the Ilkhans, Iranian officials of their government, Iranian dynasties within Iran, and local tribal rulers such as the Greater and Lesser Atabegs of Lur in Khuzestan and Lorestan, the Qara Khitai of Kerman, as well as families like Al-e Sa‘id and Al-e Golestaneh in Isfahan. Biographical compilers have considered Zulfaqar Sharwani a panegyrist of Atabak Yusuf Shah of Lur, though his Divan contains little direct praise for this ruler.
Due to the frequent use of honorific titles such as Sadr al-Din, ‘Izz al-Din, Rukn al-Din, Jamal al-Din, Safi al-Din, and others during past centuries, it is not possible to conclusively identify his patrons from his qasidas. However, after several years of research, the author of this article has come to some reasonably certain conclusions regarding Zulfaqar’s patrons. These include Sultan Ahmad Tegudar, Ghikhatu Khan, Ata Malik Juwayni, Jamal al-Din Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Mansur Dastjerdani, Imad al-Din Iranshah ibn Muhammad ibn Mansur Dastjerdani, Fakhr al-Din Muhammad al-Mastri—who composed his famous qasida titled Mafatih al-Kalam wa Mada’ih al-Kiram in praise of him—Sharaf al-Din Tahamtan Lur, Sadr al-Din Yusuf Hamgar, Qawam al-Din Ismail Hamgar, Rukn al-Din Mas’ud Sa‘id, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Golestaneh, Sultan Muzaffar al-Din Qara Khitai, Sultan Jalal al-Din Siyurgatmish Qara Khitai, Padishah Khatun Qara Khitai, ‘Ismat al-Din Turkan Khatun from the Atabegs of Yazd, ‘Ismat al-Din Turkan Khatun from the Qara Khitai of Kerman, Shahab al-Din Qawam al-Mulk, Sadr al-Din Abhari, Bubaqar Shah, Salah al-Din Hasan Bulghari—a prominent Sufi of the 7^th century AH, Taj al-Din Imad al-Mulk Miran, Fakhr al-Mulk Nizam al-Din Mahmoud, and Atabak Yusuf Shah of the Atabegs of Yazd.

Conclusion

Zulfaqar Sharwani most likely spent the longest period of his life in Kerman and Shushtar, and he composed numerous panegyrics especially for the ministers and officials of the Qara Khitai court in Kerman. Based on the information presented in this article, it can be concluded that Zulfaqar Sharwani resided in Yazd around 1263 CE (662 AH), and possibly even earlier. Towards the end of that century, approximately 1270 CE (668 AH) and shortly thereafter, he lived in Isfahan, and spent some time in Kerman. From around 1272 CE (671 AH) to 1282 CE (681 AH), he was in Shushtar; from 1282 CE to approximately 1312 CE (694 AH), he resided in Kerman; and in 1313 CE (695 AH), he returned to western or southwestern Iran.

Acknowledgments

The author expresses his utmost gratitude to Professor Ali Ashraf Sadeghi and other honorable members and officials at the Academy of Persian language and Literature for providing access to most of the resources used in this article, without which this research could not have been possible.