The Shahnameh and the Model of Iran’s Borders during the Safavid Era

Political and territorial boundaries have always constituted one of the most fundamental elements in the formation of states and collective identities. Boundaries are not merely the outcome of military power, economic capacity, or administrative organization; rather, in many historical contexts, they are deeply rooted in cultural patterns, historical consciousness, and the symbolic frameworks through which societies understand space and sovereignty. In Iranian history, particularly during the transitional period between the decline of premodern political orders and the emergence of centralized states, cultural and literary traditions played a decisive role in redefining the concept of “Iran” and its territorial limits. Focusing on the Safavid period, the present study examines the role of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and other Iranian epic and historical texts in shaping the mental model of Iran’s borders, and argues that the political boundaries of Safavid Iran were not defined solely on the basis of Shiʿi ideology or Turco-Mongol political traditions, but were significantly influenced by pre-Islamic Iranshahr concepts preserved and transmitted through the Shahnameh.
The main research question addressed in this article concerns the model upon which the political borders of Iran during the Safavid era were constructed. Specifically, it asks whether the Safavid rulers possessed a distinct mental conception of Iran as a territorial entity and, if so, what role the Shahnameh and other epic narratives played in raising historical awareness and contributing to the redefinition and stabilization of Iran’s borders. In addressing these questions, the study critically engages with scholarly interpretations that portray the Safavid state as a purely Shiʿi polity lacking any national or territorial consciousness, or as a political structure grounded exclusively in Turco-Mongol traditions of rule.
Methodologically, the study adopts a descriptive–analytical approach based on an extensive examination of Persian historical texts produced during the Safavid period, both within the Safavid realm and in neighboring regions such as Mughal India, the Ottoman Empire, and Transoxiana. One of the methodological innovations of the article lies in its frequency-based analysis of the term “Iran” in Safavid-era historiography and its comparison with pre-Safavid historical writings. The findings reveal a marked increase in the use of the term “Iran” beginning in the early decades of Safavid rule, particularly following the consolidation of political power. This surge reflects a growing historical awareness of Iran as a distinct territorial entity and signals the emergence of a renewed political–cultural identity centered on the concept of Iran.
The analysis demonstrates that Safavid historical sources increasingly portray Iran not as a fluid or contingent political domain, but as a land with relatively well-defined boundaries rooted in ancient tradition. These boundaries, especially in the eastern and western regions, closely correspond to the territorial model found in the Shahnameh and earlier Iranshahr literature, according to which the eastern frontier of Iran lies along the Oxus (Amu Darya/Jayhun) River and the western frontier along the Tigris and Euphrates. A close reading of historical narratives, military campaigns, diplomatic correspondence, and peace treaties indicates that even at the height of their military strength, the Safavid rulers generally refrained from permanent expansion beyond these symbolic borders and instead focused on defending and consolidating what they perceived as Iran’s historical territory.
The political and military conduct of the Safavid shahs—particularly in their encounters with the Uzbeks in the east and the Ottomans in the west—further supports the argument that Safavid territorial policy was not primarily based on religious boundaries. Evidence such as the Safavids’ consistent avoidance of campaigns into the Hijaz despite its religious significance, or their reluctance to pursue sustained conquests beyond the Oxus, undermines the notion that Shiʿi ideology served as the principal framework for defining territorial limits. Rather, the repeated use of Iran–Turan and Iran–Rum dichotomies in official correspondence and historical narratives, as well as the conscious deployment of Shahnameh-inspired language and imagery, points to the deep influence of Iran’s epic-historical tradition on Safavid political imagination.
Within this framework, the Shahnameh emerges as the most comprehensive literary repository of Iranshahr concepts and territorial symbolism. Beyond preserving the memory of Iran’s borders through mythological and historical narratives, the epic provided a coherent mental map that distinguished Iran from its others—most notably Turan and Rum. During the Safavid period, this symbolic geography, reinforced by court historians, bureaucrats, and literati who were deeply familiar with the Shahnameh, transcended the realm of cultural memory and entered the sphere of political practice. Its influence is evident both in the language of Safavid historiography and in the state’s practical policies aimed at defining, defending, and legitimizing Iran’s borders.
The study concludes that although the Safavid state initially emerged from a religious movement centered on Shiism, its gradual consolidation involved an increasing reliance on Iranshahr ideology and historical consciousness. The Shahnameh played a pivotal role in this process by offering a culturally authoritative model of Iran’s territorial identity. The widespread reappearance of the name “Iran” in historical texts, the alignment of Safavid political borders with Shahnameh-based territorial concepts, and the rulers’ consistent adherence to these symbolic limits collectively indicate the formation of a relatively coherent mental model of Iran during the Safavid era. This model, deeply rooted in epic and historical tradition, can be regarded as a significant factor in the continuity of Iranian territorial identity beyond the medieval period.