An Examination of Intertextual Relationships in the Rubaiyat of Rumi

The collection of poems by Molana Jalal al-Din Balkhi (Rumi) contains 1983 rubaiyat (quatrains). In the Divan-e Shams, there are rubaiyat that we find either in their exact wording or with minor and major variations in other texts. Part of this issue relates to a phenomenon in the history of Persian rubaiyat known as “wandering or itinerant rubaiyat”. Many famous rubaiyat are shared among Abu Sa'id Abul Khair, Khaje Abdullah Ansari, Attar, Afzal Kashani, Ouhad Kermani, Molana, and several other poets.
               A close study of Ruba'iyat (quatrains) by Rumi reveals that not all shared quatrains between Rumi and other poets can be categorized under the title of “wandering quatrains”. Reducing the commonalities between Rumi and others to issues of interference, mixing, or misattributions overlooks the manner in which Rumi engaged with literary heritage, which is an integral part of his personal style. Rumi was constantly reinterpreting, updating, and correcting literary heritage. His interventions in the works of others sometimes had an aesthetic and literary aspect, while at other times they had a doctrinal and educational dimension. Often, these interventions were made with the intention of elevating the original text, highlighting certain sections, or adapting it to the existing context.
               Previously, articles have been written on the source identification and authenticity of Ruba'iyat by Rumi. Most of these articles, depending on their writing context, have a limited scope and have only mentioned a few similarities. In this regard, it is worth noting one book and one academic thesis.
               Dr. Ali Baradaran Rad, in the second chapter of the book Rubaiyat of Molana (Mashhad, 1398 SH), has examined 212 shared rubaiyat between Molana and others, noting the differences in the narratives. Ms. Mahnaz Nazemi Anbaran, in her valuable research titled Examining the Authenticity of Molana's Rubaiyat, which is her academic thesis (Tabriz, 1399), has extracted and analyzed 384 shared and similar rubaiyat between the Divan-e Shams and other texts, evaluating them in detail. Out of these 384 rubaiyat, 259 have been found in other texts either in the exact wording or with slight variation.
               The approach of both studies is the source identification of Rumi's Ruba'iyat. Source identification and authenticity determination are the first and indeed important steps in establishing intertextual relationships. Rumi's method of engaging with earlier texts has been one of adaptation and revision. With the help of his memory and creativity, he would recall the Ruba'iyat he had memorized and, depending on the occasion, would modify them in his texts. Such occurrences have been repeated numerous times in his Ruba'iyat. The extent of Rumi's modifications to the pretexts varies widely. At times, he has recited or written down the exact same lines (in his prose works), and his disciples have included them in his poetry collection. The Divan-e Shams is full of Ruba'iyat by others, and I believe that most of them were recited by Rumi in the company of friends and disciples or quoted in his writings. In some cases, Rumi has made significant creative alterations to the poetry of others, producing new works. In these latter instances, it can be very challenging to determine what the original text was and to what extent the later text has drawn from it. In any case, Rumi's engagement with pretexts is considered part of his personal style in composing Ruba'iyat.
               The Rubaiyat of Molana reflects a mirror of diverse voices and countless intertextual implications. Recognizing these voices and uncovering earlier texts aids in a better understanding of Molana's works and the quality of the emergence of his Rubaiyat (as a subsequent text). Source tracing involves peeling back the astonishing layers of Molana's mind and its accumulated treasures. It can be claimed that reading the Rubaiyat of others was one of the factors that strengthened Molana's poetic ability and served as a starting point for many of his poems. Molana possessed a rich memory and a dynamic mind, engaging in the rereading and reproduction of the Rubaiyat of others.
               Some of Rumi's adaptations can also be studied and examined under the term “plagiarism”. What we encounter in Rumi's poetry is a re-creation of literary heritage. He engages in an active dialogue with literary texts and contributes to this dialogue by elevating the words of his predecessors. Another type of intertextual relationship in Rumi's quatrains is “responding”. “In the terminology of ancient poets, responding to a poem with another poem is meant”. The poet's aim in this act is to demonstrate his superiority over others. Rumi employs this method to respond to one of Khayyam's quatrains. In his quatrain, Khayyam considers asceticism to be futile in the face of divine will; Rumi replies that futile asceticism is not true asceticism but merely a semblance of it.
Genealogy, authenticity verification, and source tracing of Ruba'iyat by Molana is an important step in understanding the vast field of studies related to Molana and in grasping his critical perspective on ancient texts. It reveals the various levels of lexical and conceptual relationships between his Ruba'iyat and the heritage of Persian poetry. The very high frequency of this editorial behavior prompts us to consider Molana's quotations from earlier texts as a significant stylistic factor. Molana's critical view of previous texts and his manipulation of them goes beyond what is typically discussed in literary studies as inspiration and adaptation.
               To say that the compilers of the Divan-e Shams included the rubaiyat of others as the words of Rumi and incorporated them into his poetry, while not incorrect, should not lead us to overlook Rumi's interest in such works and their role in shaping his poetic world. In my opinion, it is not permissible to exclude these rubaiyat from the Divan-e Shams. However, to ensure that the contributions of other poets in creating this magical world are preserved, we must carefully note each of these instances in the commentary and explanations. Although, due to the loss of many texts available to Rumi and because of his integrative mind, finding all of these instances is impossible.