Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, from its composition in the fourth century AH to our days, has always been at the center of attention for various intellectual and political trends. Throughout history, each intellectual and political current, according to its own inclinations, interests, and specific purposes, has utilized the mythical elements and narratives of the Shahnameh to prove its claims, instill ideas, and expand its teachings. In the present article, after referring to the moral and mystical readings of the Shahnameh by moral educators and advocates of mysticism and Sufism in the pre-modern era, we answer the question of how the reading of the Shahnameh has undergone transformation since the dawn of the modernization movement and with what motives and arrangements the poets of the Constitutional era have employed the mythical and historical narratives, elements, and characters of the Shahnameh in the service of their own doctrinal and discursive purposes.
The influence of Shahnameh in Iranian culture has been so deep and extensive that poets of various eras have each used its narratives in their works to promote their own specific ideas and discourse. Consequently, the transformation of discourses has provided the basis for different readings of the narratives and mythical elements of the Shahnameh. These discourses and, subsequently, the readings of the Shahnameh can be divided into pre-modern and post-modern discourses and readings. Here, while mentioning two prevalent discourses in the pre-modern era, we will examine the most common post-modern discourse and reading.
Moral Interpretation: Ethical teachings, concepts, and actions have always been of such importance that even eulogizing and lyrical poets have not avoided referencing and emphasizing certain concepts, virtues, or moral actions within their praises and lyrical poems. Many of these poets have resorted to the stories and mythical elements of the Shahnameh to present, explain, or instill moral concepts. In this type of usage, the mythical elements are detached from their epic context and used to convey and instill moral teachings. It seems that the use of mythical elements to promote moral concepts has been somewhat common since the time of the creation of the Shahnameh. Ferdowsi can perhaps be considered one of the first poets who repeatedly used the mythical elements within the Shahnameh to instill moral concepts and actions (Ferdowsi, 2007: 1/85).
Mystical and Sufi Interpretation: Alongside the moral reading of the Shahnameh, from the sixth century AH onward, with the spread of mystical thoughts, another interpretation also emerged that offered a different reading of the Shahnameh. The allegorical perspective of the proponents of this interpretation allowed them to use any phenomenon or concept within their own discursive framework. The use of mythical narratives and elements to convey discursive meanings and concepts is one of the expressive techniques that has been reflected in some mystical poems.
Moral and mystical interpretations of the Shahnameh lasted until the dawn of intellectual and literary modernization, after which they gave way to a different reading that can be termed a political-nationalistic interpretation. The present article is tasked with examining and analyzing this reading of the Shahnameh.
Political-Nationalistic Interpretation of the Shahnameh: From the second half of the 13th century AH, simultaneously with the entry of progressive thought into Iran and the gradual formation of the intellectual foundations of Constitutionalism, the idea of nationalism in Iran emerged and strengthened over time, becoming the dominant discourse of the era. The prevalence of this discourse, upon which the Constitutional Movement was theoretically based, significantly marginalized pre-modern discourses, including moral and mystical discourses, and influenced the literature of the era as an alternative discourse. During this period, the ancient and mythical eras of Iran once again gained special reverence and attention, and the Shahnameh and its narratives became the focal point for the poets of the time.
In this reading, the mythical era also underwent changes and took on the colors of the desires and imaginations of the reading era. Here, we first discuss the idealized image of Iran during the mythical era in the perception of Constitutional era poets, and then examine their different approach to the elements and events of the mythical era and how they directed them to expand the ideals of the Constitutional movement.
A: The Idealized Image of Mythical and Ancient Iran versus Constitutional Era Iran: The era of mythical and ancient kings is depicted with an idealized image in Constitutional era poetry. This image was depicted by Iranian nationalist theorists such as Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzâde (d. 1916) and Mirza Agha Khan Kermâni (d. 1935) (Sadriniyâ, 2022: 48-50). In their perception, the era of mythical kings was a time of prosperity, joy, happiness, and the flourishing of Iran and its people. Kings ruled during that heavenly period, and everyone lived in comfort and ease (cf. Akhundzâde, 1375: 225; Mirza Agha Khan, 2000: 120-126).
This perception of the contrast between mythical and ancient Iran and late Qajar era Iran has been widely reflected in the poetry of almost all Constitutional era poets. For example, in the poetry of Adib al-Mamâlek Farâhâni (d. 1913), we repeatedly encounter such an approach to the mythical era of Iran (Adib, 1933: 88, 99). Malek al-Shoʾarâ Bahâr (d. 1951) also, on various occasions, referred to Iran as the land of Kayân and the country of Darius in his poetry, which is now under threat from Russia and Britain (Bahâr, 2001: 271-272). Such an approach and interpretation are clearly seen in the poetry of other poets such as Sayyed Ashraf al-Din (Namini, 1992: 332-333), Âref Qazvini (1977: 335-336), and Farrokhi Yazdi (1990: 186-187), despite some differences in their nationalist perceptions.
B: Mythical Elements in Service of Explaining the Necessity of Struggle Against Despotism and Colonialism: Constitutional era poets, according to the stages and requirements of the people's freedom-seeking movement, used mythical elements and characters to explain the necessity of political struggle against the enemies of Iran. At each stage, they employed specific mythical elements according to the nature and goals of their struggle. When aiming to incite people against domestic despotism, they used the story of Kâve and Zahhâk, and when the issue was the aggression of a foreign colonial enemy, they resorted to the story of Salm, Tur, and Iraj, and spoke of the necessity of Manuchehr's action (e.g., Farrokhi Yazdi, 1990: 102, 121, 132, 160). Âref Qazvini, while honoring the kings of the mythical era, viewed Kâve's uprising against Zahhâk from a different perspective. According to his view, based on a modern perception of the foundations of government legitimacy, the Iranian nation has always been the owner of this land, and it was the people who once entrusted its governance to Fereydun, Qobâd, and Jamšid or reclaimed it from Zahhâk through their uprising led by Kâve (Âref Qazvini, 282-283).
The image of Russia and Britain in the mirror of Constitutional era poetry, considering their actions and policies, shows a striking resemblance to the image of Tur and Salm in the mythical era of Iran. Russia is depicted as the embodiment of unrestrained and blatant rage, devoid of compassion, inflamed, and ruthless, whereas Britain is the symbol of cunning and deceit coupled with intelligence and self-restraint. Based on this mental image, in popular perception, Russia is likened to a wild bear and Britain to a sly fox. Farrokhi Yazdi is one of the poets who, in his poetry, has given a mythical dimension to the aggression of these two imperialist enemies against Iran, using these characteristics (Farrokhi Yazdi, 1990: 186), portraying Russia as the continuation of Tur and Britain as the representation of Salm in his era (see Sadriniyâ, 2022: 170-186). Such an image of the aggression of the two hostile neighbors has also been reflected in the poetry of other poets of this era (Bahâr, 2001: 1/272, 642).
C: Theme Creation with Mythical Elements: Sometimes, mythical elements in the poetry of the Constitutional era are used solely for the purpose of theme creation and as an expressive tool to describe nature and lyricism. Although using these elements in this context mixes the poet's words with a kind of artificiality and playfulness, reducing its emotional weight, it still, in a way, displays the poet's patriotic attachment. Bahâr (2001: 1/171) and Farrokhi Yazdi (1990: 193-194) are among the poets who used mythical elements in constructing their poetic imagery, creating combinations such as “Afrasiâb of Autumn”, “Kayumars of Spring”, “Garshâsp of Boxwood”, “Giv of Wind”, and “Pirân of Autumn”, among others.
Conclusion
From examining the use of the narratives and mythical elements of the Shahnameh in Persian poetry, the following points can be inferred: The use of these elements and narratives in various texts has been accompanied by a sense of reverence and respect. Followers of different trends throughout history have utilized these narratives and elements according to their intellectual atmosphere and discursive needs to explain viewpoints, convey ideas and beliefs, and reinforce and establish their discursive purposes. In the three major discourses of Iranian intellectual and cultural history, the narratives and mythical elements of the Shahnameh have been used to convey the concepts and purposes of moral, mystical, and political-nationalistic discourses. Poets of the Constitutional era, according to the political situation of their time and the necessity to incite people against internal despotism and foreign influence, have presented various readings of the mythical elements of the Shahnameh. The attachment to the narratives of the mythical era has led some poets to use mythical elements in constructing their poetic imagery, creating unique combinations and similes to give distinction to their words.